Petai Seed
Parkia speciosa Hassk.
Leguminosae
Figure 1 : Parkia speciosa. (a) Young and mature flowers; (b) mature flowers in a light bulb-shaped mass; (c) newly developing young pods; (d) whole plant with pods; (e) maturing pods with leaves; (f) harvested mature pods; (g) seeds; (h) seeds powder. (Photos courtesy of Hawa ZE Jaafar, UPM, 2016)
DEFINITION
Petai seed consists of the dried seeds of Parkia speciosa Hassk. (Leguminosae).
SYNONYM
Parkia macropoda Miq., Parkia harbesonii Elmer, Inga pyriformis Jungh.L., Mimosa pedunculata Hunter [ 1 ].
VERNACULAR NAMES
Bitter bean, twisted cluster bean, stink bean (English); petai, petah, patai, patag, nyiring (Malay); chou dou (Chinese); yongchak (Indian) [ 2 , 3 , 4 ].
CHARACTER
| Colour | Greenish to dark green colour |
| Odour | Very strong foul smell |
| Taste | Garlic flavour |
IDENTIFICATION
Plant Morphology
Parkia speciosa is a perennial tree up to 15–40 m in height and 50–100 cm in diameter of bole; branchlets are hairy. Leaves bipinnate on 2–6 cm long stalks with gland 7–15 mm above stalk base; pinnae 10–19 pairs, 5–9 cm long, each with 31–38 pairs of opposite linear leaflets, 5–9 mm long and about 2 mm wide, with rounded tip and small pointed lobe or ear at base. Flowers bisexual, small and creamy white, found in densely crowded heads; the heads are stalked, 5.1–8.9 cm long. Pods large, 35–55 cm long and 3–5 cm wide, straight or more commonly twisted; dangling in small bundles, green becoming black; each pod contains 10–18 large, light to dark green seeds; valves swollen over seeds. Seeds elliptic, green in colour, up to 2.3 cm across; testa is soft [ 3 ].
Microscopy
Powdered material consists of fragment of annular parenchyma cells, fragment of fiber, oil globules and solitary calcium oxalate crystals.
Figure 2 : Microscopic characters of Parkia speciosa seeds powder of 0.355 mm size. (a) Parenchyma cells (magnification 40x); (b) parenchyma cells (magnification 20x); (c) parenchyma cells (magnification 40x); (d) fragment of fibre (magnification 20x); (e) oil globules (magnification 20x); (f) solitary calcium oxalate crystals under polarizing filter (magnification 40x). [Scale bars: a, f = 10 µm; b, c, d, e = 20 µm]
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Figure 3 : TLC chromatogram of gallic acid (S) at Rf: 0.34 min and methanol extract of Parkia speciosa dried seeds powder (L) observed under (a) UV at visible light, (b) UV at 254 nm before derivatisation, (c) UV at 366 nm before derivatisation and (d) UV at 366 nm after derivatisation.
| Test Solutions | Weigh about 3.0 g of P. speciosa dried seed powder in a round bottom flask. Add 15 mL of methanol and shake gently manually. Reflux at 80ºC until boil. Once the mixture is boiling, turn reflux to no. 1 and continue for next 20 min. Allow the mixture to cool under room temperature. Filter the solution and use the filtrate as test solution. |
| Standard solution | Dissolve 5.0 mg of gallic acid standard [CAS no: 149-91-7] in methanol to give a standard concentration of 1.0 mg/mL solution. |
| Stationary Phase | HPTLC Glass plate Silica 60 F254 10 cm x 10cm, Merck. |
| Mobile phase | Toluene : ethyl acetate : formic acid (5 : 4 : 1) (v/v/v) |
| Application |
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| Development distance | 8 cm |
| Drying | Air drying |
| Detection |
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High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
| Test solution | Weigh about 3.0 g of P. speciosa dried seed powder 0.355 mm size in a round bottom flask. Add 15 mL of methanol and shake gently manually. Reflux at 80ºC until boil. Once the moisture is boiled, turn reflux to no. 1 and continue for next 20 min. Allow the mixture to cool under room temperature. Filter the solution through a 0.45 µm syringe filter and inject the filtrate into the HPLC column. | ||||||||||||||||||
| Standard solution | Dissolve gallic acid standard [CAS no.: 149-91-7] in methanol to produce a standard concentration of 1.0 mg/mL solution. | ||||||||||||||||||
| Chromatographic system |
Detector: UV 280 nm Column: C18 (5.0 µm, 4.6 mm I.D. x 250 mm) (ZORBAX Eclipse Plus C18 if necessary). Column oven temperature: 35°C Flow rate: 1.0 mL/min Injection volume: 10 µL |
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| Mobile Phase (gradient mode) |
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| System suitability requirement |
Perform at least five replicate injections of gallic acid (1.0 mg/mL). The requirements of the system suitability parameters are as follow:
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| Acceptance criteria |
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(a)
(b)
Figure 4 : Whole HPLC chromatogram of (a) gallic acid standard solution (1.0 mg/mL) at peak tr = 2.698 min and (b) methanol extract of Parkia speciosa dried seeds powder showing a peak corresponding to gallic acid standard solution at tr = 2.736 min.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 : HPLC chromatogram highlighting the elution region of gallic acid in (a) gallic acid standard solution (1.0 mg/mL) at tr = 2.698 min and (b) methanol extract of Parkia speciosa dried seeds powder showing a peak corresponding to gallic acid standard solution at tr = 2.736 min.
Figure 6 : UV spectrum of gallic acid standard solution (1.0 mg/mL) and methanol extract of Parkia speciosa dried seed powder.
PURITY TESTS
The purity tests, except foreign matter test, are based on P. speciosa dried seed powder of 0.355 mm particle size.
| Foreign Matter |
| Not more than 2% |
| Ash Contents | |
| Total ash | Not more than 8% |
| Acid-insoluble ash | Not more than 1% |
| Loss on Drying |
| Not more than 11% |
| Extractive Values | |
| Water-soluble extracts | |
| Hot method | Not less than 34% |
| Cold method | Not less than 25% |
| Ethanol-soluble extracts | |
| Hot method | Not less than 18% |
| Cold method | Not less than 14% |
SAFETY TESTS
The safety tests are based on P. speciosa dried seed powder of 0.355 mm particle size.
| Heavy Metals | |
| Arsenic | Not more than 5.0 mg/kg |
| Mercury | Not more than 0.5 mg/kg |
| Lead | Not more than 10.0 mg/kg |
| Cadmium | Not more than 0.3 mg/kg |
| Microbial Limits | |
| Total bacterial count | Not more than 105 cfu/g |
| Total yeast and mould count | Not more than 104 cfu/g |
| Bile-tolerant gram negative | Not more than 104 cfu/g |
| Specific Pathogens | |
| Salmonella spp. | Absent in 25 g |
| Escherichia coli | Absent in 1 g |
| Staphylococcus aureus | Absent in 1 g |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Absent in 1 g |
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Supercritical carbon dioxide extract of P. speciosa dried seeds was found to contain essential oil (e.g. propanoic acid, 3,3′-thiobis- didodecyl ester, thio-dipropionic acid, didodecyl ester, linoleic acid chloride, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, myristic acid, arachidonic acid, undecanoic acid, phthalic acid mono(2-ethythexyl) ester, linolelaidic acid methyl ester, octadecanoic acid 5-hydroxy 5-lactone hexadecanoic, 9,12-octadecadienoic, eneicosane and heptacosane and 2-hexyl-I-decanol, trans-2, tetradecanal, trans-4-decadienal, 2,2,7,7-tetramethyltricyclo[6.2.1.0(1,6)]undec-4-en-3-one, trans-24-propylidene cholesterolyl) -4,4,6a,6b,8a, 1,1,11,14b-octamethyl, 2-hexyJ-1-decanol, linoleic acid 2-(acetyloxy)-1-[(acetyloxy)methyl]ethyl ester), terpenoids (e.g. p-sitosterol, β-sitosterol and squalene), steroids (e.g. stigmasterol, stigmasterol methylether, lupeol and campesterol) [ 5 , 6 ].
Aqueous extract P. speciosa dried seeds was found to contain thiproline (e.g. thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid), phenolic acid (e.g. gallic acid, catechin and ellagic acid [ 7 , 8 ].
Ethanol extract P. speciosa dried seeds was found to contain phenolic acid (e.g. gallic acid, catechin and ellagic acid [ 8 ].
Chloroform extract of P. speciosa dried seeds was found to contain polysulphides (e.g. 1,2,4-trithiolane, 1,2,4,6-tetrathiepane, 1,2,3,5,6-pentathiepane (lenthionine) and 1,2,4,5,7,8- hexathionane, 1,2,4,6,7- pentathiocane, 1,2,4,5,7-pentathiocane [ 9 ].
Hexane extract of P. speciosa dried seeds was found to contain essential oil (e.g. 2-decyn-1-ol, trans-2, trans-4-decadienal, tetradecane, palmitic acid, tetradecanal, thio-dipropionic acid, didodecyl ester, 1,1-octadecenoic acid, methyl ester, linolelaidic acid methyl ester, linoleic acid, 9,12-octadecadienoic, phthalic acid, mono(2-ethythexyl) ester, 9-octadecenoic acid (2-phenyl-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl)methyl, octadecanoic acid 5-hydroxy 5-lactone, trans-24-propylidenecholesterolyl)-4,4,6a,6b,8a, 1,1,11,14b-octamethyl, 12,12a,14,14a,14b-octadecahydro-2H-picen-3-one, 2-hexyJ-1-decanol, linoleic acid, 2-(acetyloxy)-1-[(acetyloxy)methyl]ethyl ester), terpenoids (e.g. squalene, 3-sitosterol, phytosterols, b-sitosterol), steroids (e.g. campesterol, stigmasterol methylether, stigmasterol) [ 6 ].
MEDICINAL USES
Uses described in folk medicine, not supported by experimental or clinical data
Traditionally, the seeds are used for lowering blood glucose, kidney problem and headache [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. The seeds are also considered beneficial in treating oedema and as anthelmintic [ 13 ]. The leaves are also used on parasite and joint pain [ 14 ].
Biological and pharmacological activities supported by experimental data
Antimicrobial activity
Ethanol (50%) extract of P. speciosa bean pod (40 mg/mL) inhibited the growth of Gram positive bacteria, Bacillus cereus (inhibition zone: 9.50 ± 0.06 mm), Listeria monocytogenes (10.50 ± 0.50 mm), and Staphylococcus aureus (11.50 ± 0.50 mm) compared to tetracycline (24.65 ± 0.08 mm, 19.87 ± 0.33 mm and 23.67 ± 0.19 mm) using agar well diffusion [ 15 ].
Ethanol (50%) extract of P. speciosa bean pod (40 mg/mL) inhibited the growth of Gram negative bacteria, Escherichia coli (inhibition zone: 7.07 ± 0.63 mm), Salmonella typhimurium (9.15 ± 0.15 mm), and Vibrio cholerae (16.27 ± 0.20 mm) compared to tetracycline (21.67 ± 0.19 mm, 25.06 ± 0.08 mm, and 21.98 ± 0.03 mm) using agar well diffusion [ 15 ].
Ethly acetate extract of P. speciosa seed (10 mg/dics) inhibited the growth of E. coli with inhibition zones of 12.0 mm compared to ampicillin (inhibition zone: 28.2 mm) using disc diffusion assay [ 17 ].
Antiangiogenesis activity
Methanol extract of P. speciosa fruit pulp showed antiangiongenesis activity with inhibition of the blood vessel outgrowth of 82 ± 6% to the vehicle group (DMSO) using rat aorta ring assay [ 17 ].
Cytotoxic activity
Methanol extract of P. speciosa fruit pulp (100 µg/mL) exhibited cytotoxic activity on breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) with (mean percent inhibition: 11 ± 2), human colorectal carcinoma cell line (HCT-116) (mean percent inhibition: 10 ± 6), human umbilical vein endothelial cell line (HUVEC) (mean percent inhibition: 56 ± 8), human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (HT-29) (mean percent inhibition: 17 ± 4), human hepatocarcinoma cell line (HepG2) (mean percent inhibition: 9 ± 2) and breast cancer cell line (T47D) (mean percent inhibition: 8 ± 4) using MTT assay [ 17 ].
Antihypertensive activity
Bioactive peptides extractions from hydrolysed P. speciosa seed inhibited the angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) with 80.2 ± 2.8% inhibition using ACE assay [ 18 ].
Antianemia activity
Ethanol extract (30%) of P. speciosa seeds (400 and 700 mg/kg) was injected to male Wistar rats after induction of anemia using sodium nitrite. The extracts increased the haemoglobin rate from (before treatment: 400 mg/kg: 10.6 g/dL; 700 mg/kg: 10.66 g/dL) to (after treatment: 400 mg/kg: 11.54; 700 mg/kg: 11.48 g/dL) compared to positive group control, sangabion (before treatment: 10.9 g/dL; after treatment: 10.66 g/dL) [19 ].
Clinical studies
Information and data have not been established.
SAFETY INFORMATION
Preclinical studies (Toxicological studies)
Acute toxicity
Oral single dose acute toxicity study on female Sprague Dawley rats (aged between 8 and 12 weeks old) using aqueous extract of P. speciosa seeds showed no toxic effect on the parameters observed, including behaviours, body weight, food and water intake. All rats were observed for 14 days prior to necropsy. No death was found throughout the study period. Necropsy revealed no significant abnormality. No-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) is 2,000 mg/kg body weight [ 20 ]
Others (Adverse reactions, contraindications, side effects, warning, precautions)
Information and data have not been established.
DOSAGE
Information and data have not been established.
STORAGE
Store below 30°C. Protect from light and moisture.
REFERENCES
- The Plant List. [Internet] Parkia speciosa Hassk; 2010 (cited on 30th November 2016]. Available from http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-46350
- Musa T, Azimah AK, Zaharah H, editors. Tumbuhan Ubatan Popular Malaysia. Edisi 3. Selangor: MARDI; 2011; p.212.
- Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A. [Internet] Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4.0, 2009 (cited on 30th November 2016). Available from http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/
- Nurul Izzah A, Aminah A, Md Pauzi A, Lee YH, Wan Rozita WM, Siti Fatimah D. Patterns of fruits and vegetable consumption among adults of different ethnics in Selangor, Malaysia. International Food Research Journal. 2012;19(3);1095-1107.
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- Rahman NNNA, Zhari S, Sarker M, Islam Z, Ferdosh S, Yunus MAC, et al. Profile of Parkia speciosa Hassk Metabolites Extracted with SFE using FTIR‐PCA Method. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society. 2012;59(4):507-514.
- Suvachittanont W, Kurashima Y, Esumi H, Tsuda M. Formation of thiazolidine-4-carboxyiic acid (thioproline), an effective nitrite-trapping agent in human body, in Parkia speciosa seeds and other edible leguminous seeds in Thailand. Food Chemistry. 1996;55(4):359-363.
- Ko H-J, Ang L-H, Ng L-T. Antioxidant activities and polyphenolic constituents of bitter bean Parkia speciosa. International Journal of Food Properties. 2014;17(9):1977-1986.
- Gmelin R, Susilo R, Fenwick GR. Cyclic polysulphides from Parkia speciosa. Phytochemistry. 1981;20(11):2521-2523.
- Samuel JSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain HA, Muruganandham V, Promwichit P. Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak, West Malaysia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2010;6(5):1-6.
- Milow P, Ghazali NH, Mohammad NS, Ong HC. Characterization of plant resource at Kampung Parit Tok Ngah, Perak, Malaysia. Scientific Research and Essays. 2011;6(13):2606–2618.
- Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW. Ethno-medicinal resources used by the Temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Ethno Medicine. 2012;6(1):17–22.
- Plant Use. [Internet] Parkia speciosa Hassk; (cited on 2nd January 2017). Available from http://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Parkia_speciosa_(PROSEA)
- Jiofack T, Fokunang C, Guedje N, Kemeuze V, Fongnzossie E, Nkongmeneck BA, Mapongmetsem PM, Tsabang N. Ethnobotanical uses of some plants of two ethnoecological regions of Cameroon. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2009;3(13):664-684.
- Wonghirundecha S, Benjakul S, Sumpavapol P. Total phenolic content, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of stink bean (Parkia speciosa Hassk.) pod extracts. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology. 2014;36(3):301-308.
- Sakunpak A, Panichayupakaranant P. Antibacterial activity of Thai edible plants against gastrointestinal pathogenic bacteria and isolation of a new broad spectrum antibacterial polyisoprenylated benzophenone, chamuangone. Food Chemistry. 2012;130(4):826-831.
- Aisha FA, Abu-Salah KM, Darwis Y, Abdul Majid AMS. Screening of antiangiogenie activity of some tropical plants by rat aorta ring assay. International Journal of Pharmacology. 2009;5(6):370–376.
- Siow HL, Gan CY. Extraction of antioxidative and antihypertensive bioactive peptides from Parkia speciosa seeds. Food Chemistry. 2013;141(4):3435-3442.
- Nursucihta S, Thai’in HA, Putri DM, Utami DN, Ghani AP. Antianemia activity of Parkia speciosa Hassk seed ethanolic extract. Traditional Medicine Journal. 2014;19(2):49-54.
- Elda Nurafnie IR, Nor Azlina Z, Hemahwathy CK, Farah Huda M, Izwah H, Teh BP. Acute oral toxicity study of selected Malaysian medicinal herbs on Sprague Dawley rats. Institute for Medical Research, Ministry of Health; 2019. Report no.: NON-GLP/2019/11/01.
